Enhancing the Quality of Education Provided by School Teachers Essay

Enhancing the Quality of Education Provided by School Teachers - Essay Example The association of teachers’ educators widely acknowledges that the most efficient way to upgrade students learning outcomes depends highly on the quality of teaching. The research that was conducted by the same association indicates that the teacher quality is positively and significantly correlated with learners’ attainment. The same result is also important within-school aspect since it can be used to analyze student results. Education is an essential tool not only for the cultivation of values in students but also thriving and innovative society. This is the primary reason teachers are instructed to encourage self-motivation and proper way of studying among learners and to be a good role model for the students. The quality of education is not only restricted to the class work alone, but it extends further up to economic development. As the competition among nations intensifies due to rapid growth in the global market, the imperative role of education as the key to future success can greatly be felt. Above all, following the structural changes from manufacturing to the service-oriented economy in the past years, it will force educators to establish substantial and genuine human capital to central the top rank of competition. However, this will be influenced by the quality of education offered by the existing schools and teachers. Some of these changes can achieve through enhancing Teacher Education Programmes in order to produce highly trained and qualified teachers.

Special Educational Needs Sen Education Essay

Special Educational Needs Sen Education Essay The term inclusion is difficult to define, with many professionals having their own theories on what inclusion is .One of the most controversial but perhaps true definitions of inclusion comes from the Salamanca Statement whereby educational accomplishment is perceived as being secondary to the development of the self through personal choice(Hodkinson and Vickerman, 2009).This statement and definition relates directly to the rights-based model and discourse(Dyson,2000) this reinforces the rights of a child and their entitlement to an education . To implement this type of inclusion both schools and society needs to recognise and disable the obstacles that constrain a childs choices and their capability to reach their full potential (Hodkinson and Vickerman, 2009). The term SEN was devised in the 1970s by the Warnock Report (DES, 1978, cited in Hodkinson and Vickerman, 2009). Lady Warnock states in her report that authorities should consider the idea of including all children into mainstream schooling if that is where they will learn successfully (Kent, 2005). The 1981 Education Act came after the Warnock report .This new piece of legislation affected the entire education system, and was seen to have a positive influence on the education of children with SEN (Potts, 1995). The Act prohibited any child from being deprived of an education, and effectively reinforced inclusion whenever it was possible (Kent, 2005). The Education Act describes a child with SEN as someone who has a learning barrier which appeals for special educational conditions to be made for them. This includes any child below the age of 19 who is a recorded pupil at an educational institute (DfEE, 1996 and SENDA, 2001, cited in Hodkinson and Vickerman, 2009). Frederickson and Cline (2007) suggest that many people misperceive special educational needs with special needs. They propose a child has a special need if they originate from a community whose conditions or upbringing is dissimilar from the majority of the school populace. Thus meaning that a special need does not necessarily manifest itself as SEN (Frederickson and Cline, 2002, cited in Hodkinson and Vickerman, 2009). The Education act calls for an official assessment of all alleged SEN children, a provision upheld by later legislations. A statement of Special Educational needs is formed and complied by educational authorities, who are accountable for outlining the extent of the childs needs and recommending educational strategies and resources to suit the child. The SEN statements are used to situate children into mainstream schools if; the childs requirements can be met, they do not restrict or hinder other childrens learning and is an efficient use of the authorities resources (Kentworthy and Whittaker, 2000). In 2003, within the UK there was anticipated to be over 1.7 million children with possible SEN and of these children around 250,000 of them had a formal statement (Russell, 2003). It could be argued that the statement process and the use of the term SEN is negatively associated to the medical model opinion of disability (Hodkinson and Vickerman, 2009). Frederickson and Cline (2007) maintain that the process of assessing a child with SEN is completed by scrutinising the individual child. It is expected that the foundation of the problem is within the child and that they must be afflicted with a disability or a learning impairment. The assessment process is thought to be comparable to a medical diagnosis by establishing what classification of disability the child suffers from. It has been advocated that this method of labelling, is disrespectful and distressing to the specific child and also has an impact on the way in which their learning is sustained (CSIE, 2005, cited in Hodkinson and Vickerman, 2009). Segregation, due to the labelling process is a normal experience for a child with SEN .Children may be excluded from mainstream schools and placed in a special school or within a mainstream classroom children may miss out on lessons to be educated by the special needs expert or more commonly the designated teaching assistant. The medical model has perhaps lowered anticipations of a child with SEN. Some consider handicapped children as abnormal, because they are constrained to what they can accomplish. Frederickson and Cline (2007) state that being handicap was defined by society in terms of defect, physical and emotional deficiencies were believed to inflict limitations on cognitive advancement. As a consequence obstructions to achievement and social development were forced upon children with SEN (Frederickson and Cline, 2007, cited in Hodkinson and Vickerman, 2009). Law (1993) suggests some parents of children with SEN would prefer a diagnosis, as they feel it helps them comprehend and prepare for the problems their child may be confronted with. Parents also feel that a statement can help to gain access to expert help and advice and secure a place in a special school. Hanson et al (2001) argues that the majority of parents welcome inclusive locations for their children with SEN, although parents did have apprehensions about the teachers level of training and experience. Corbett (2001) claims teachers are enthusiastic to support inclusion when dealing with children who have a mild disability. There is nevertheless the proposal that teachers do not have the similar inclusive idea in relation to those children who show severe behavioural problems (Wedell, 2005).Inclusion for certain children is being deferred because the educational system is not fit to include them because of the obstructions of lack of knowledge, lack of will, lack of vision, lack of resources and lack of morality (Clough and Garner 2003; 87 cited in Hodkinson and Vickerman, 2009).Study in this topic establishes that for these children, teachers consider that exclusion is essential due to their experience within the classroom (Corbett,2001). The previous Government, encouraged teachers to improve personalised learning for all students (Milliband, 2004, cited in Wedell, 2005).This was intended to inspire a more receptive approach to teaching. While the majority of teachers no doubt aspire to do this, the difficulties within whole-class teaching stipulate how difficult this is to accomplish. Additionally, such targets require understanding and time to apply. David Hargreaves (2004) states traditional teachers are not educated adequately enough to deal with the varieties of responsibilities now outlined for them (Wedell, 2005). The quality of teaching for pupils with different needs has been an concern that has prevented the effective application of SEN and inclusion strategies .The Programme of Action(DfEE,1998)specified the need for teachers to undertake detailed training in special educational needs and the previous Government also agreed that effective practice is being obstructed by the same issue(DfES,2004).There seems to be a common opinion amongst educational professionals that the training they receive to prepare themselves for the teaching and accommodating of children with SEN is woefully inadequate'(Corbett,2001;22). To aid teachers, the process of grouping pupils is still commonly used in the classroom. This technique was introduced so that teachers could prioritise and plan differentiated lessons. The tensions this inflicts on children and the complications it creates for teachers have been extensively acknowledged. David Hargreaves stated; Pedagogy in schools is about mastering the art of controlling the behaviour of some thirty young persons of the same age, who are reluctantly enclosed in a room of modest size and who can be easily managed as thirty kittens can be herded. (Hargreaves, 2001:2 cited in Wedell, 2005) Hartley also mentions; If the government retains a bias towards whole- class, traditional pedagogy, then the costs may be reduced, teachers may be tamed, high-stakes scores will rise, and procedures may be standardised. But the economic benefits are likely to be few in the long term. (Hartley, 2003:91 cited in Wedell, 2005) These interpretations specify how features of the structure of schooling present difficulties for children with SEN in general. The government has introduced a mass deployment of teaching assistant(TAs)to aid teachers in these dilemmas , but class grouping still exists within a classroom .The provision of learning support assistants(LSAs)for pupils with special educational needs is perhaps a method of softening the blow for teachers who are in mainstream classes. It is recognised that the velcro-ing of LSAs to pupils occasionally becomes a system of within-class segregation (Wedell, 2005). The Pragmatic discourse states that for schools to achieve a more inclusive ethos, support will be needed to develop polices and practice(Dyson,2000) that not only allows all children to be supported but also convey the needs of the teachers as well (Hanko, 2003 cited in Hodkinson and Vickerman, 2009).Frederickson and Cilne (2002) declare that for schools to develop inclusion they must scrutinise how they might encourage involvement of the diversity of pupils that they assist within the community (Hodkinson and Vickerman, 2009). The Political discourse discusses the struggle (Vlachou, 1997, cited in Dyson, 2000) between views of teachers, parents and MPs. These conflicting opinions cause national education policies and legislations to frequently aggravate each other in their execution. The Audit Commission (2002) noticed that the application of the Statement process proceeded to pull finance away from local education authorities(LEAs).Funding for pupils with a statements ran at ten times the funding available for children with mild to moderate SEN without a statement. The 2004,OFSTED report on progress in inclusion found that for some schools inflexible timetabling ,staffing and non-existence initiative were handicaps to successful progress. Whereas The Audit Commissions (2002)refer to the predicaments faced by schools ,as they are put under pressure to achieve better academic results and to become inclusive(Wedell, 2005). In England, educational requirements for children with SEN are administrated by the Special Educational Needs Code of Practice (DFES, 2001a, cited in Hodkinson and Vickerman, 2009).Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales have similar Codes. The Code was launched in schools in 2002.The Code of Practice details the standards for the management of SEN provision (Soan, 2005, cited in Hodkinson and Vickerman, 2009). The Codes key objectives are that a child with SEN: should have their needs met, their needs will ordinarily be met in mainstream schools, the views of the child should be considered and children with SEN should be offered a diverse and significant education. The principles within the Code work alongside the statement of inclusion that exists within the National Curriculum (Soan, 2005, cited in Hodkinson and Vickerman, 2009).The National Curriculums principles of inclusion maintain that teachers will: set appropriate learning tasks for all children, respond to childrens varied learning requirements and overcome possible barriers to learning. It is evident that these two statements, conflict with each other ,due to the fact that they link to different models. Within the Code the childs difficulties are perceived to be the focus which associates the Code to the medical model, .(Soan,2005, ,cited in Hodkinson and Vickerman, 2009).Whereas the statement of inclusion expresses links to the social model as it looks at improving factors such as the learning environment (Alcott,2002). If the hurdles of implementing inclusion are to be weakened it would seem obvious that †¦.. individual pupils†¦. must be at the core of all we do'(Coles and Hancock,2001, cited in Hodkinson and Vickerman, 2009:88). A common issue with implementing inclusion is that perhaps to much time is spent over concerns about inputs and settings when perhaps more time should be spent on developing experiences and outcomes for the pupils.

Hakim Bey, Chaos: The Broadsheets of Ontological Anarchism :: Essays Papers

Hakim Bey, Chaos: The Broadsheets of Ontological Anarchism Such is the fast-paced world and style of Hakim Bey’s writings. Sporadic and rarely rounded up for interrogation, Bey’s Ontological Anarchism pervades all his writings, on topics as varied as â€Å"Islam and Eugenics†[1], â€Å"The Information War†[2], â€Å"The Evil Eye†[3], a critique of multiculturalism[4], and Celtic-African entheogens[5]. Hakim Bey’s zine writings and early 90’s hipsterism have made him known to some as â€Å"The Marco Polo of the Subunderground†[6] and a counter-cultural guru to many more. With information becoming more firm only in the last few years, Hakim Bey has been identified as a pseudonym for Peter Lamborn Wilson, a New York based translator and author. Drawing on his experiences wandering India, Asia, and North Africa, Hakim Bey authors (what offer to be) outrageous manifestos and leftist anarchist essays primarily for zine publication and distribution or for lectures and performance. He draws explicitly on a Moorish and sufiist intellectual heritage with occasional references to contemporary philosophers and cultural theorists. He situates himself as a post situationist anarchist informed by critical theory, and has written in both ctheory and Trip. Bey’s writing is ultimately so fascinating precisely because it does not fit neatly into a schools of thought, academic discipline, or a relation between the major figures of contemporary theory (eg loves Baudrillard, ignores Lacan, sometimes uses Foucault). As such, his writings are rather esoterically his own, and not only do not make their ties with other theorists explicit, but also cannot be immediately connected to theirs (because Bey’s assumptions are so different on account of his background’s differences from western academic philosophy). His work, as a theorist of media (and everything else), operates at a straightforward and accessible level, filled with obscure references that don’t point towards an expertise in his readership so much as an explosion of it. For some, his writings are meaningless babble on the level of Principia Discordia[7]. He does not get much mainstream citation except in regards to his concept of PT and the TAZ[8], but he does get plenty of crap. This disdain culminated in the publication of a ‘fake’ Hakim Bey book, actually written by â€Å"Luther Blissett†[9]. Hakim Bey is a persona. His behaviors and secrecy are all a part of the body of work of which he is accredited with authorship.

Addiction Counselors

Bowers, M. 2000). Young people and problem drug use : The role of attachment theory and family background. (Order No. Lull 35553, University of Leister (United Kingdom)). PACT – I-J & Ireland, Retrieved from http://search. Protest. Com/deceive/ 301 (301 545184). The findings show that the young people with drug use problems differed from the control group in that they emphasized the positive consequences of drug use and were more likely to leave school early. However, there was an absence of a direct relationship between family and related.Researches have been looking around efferent gender and match that the cases decrease among years, since there is an empty attach between family members. This research was based on different family experiences. Skillet, S. K. (2002). Causal attributions for problem drinking: Gender differences and predictors of therapeutic outcome. (Order No. Lull 58572, University of Leister (United Kingdom)). PACT – I-J & Ireland, Retrieved from htt p://search. Protest. Com/ (301 562982). Researchers at the Retrieved had identified a number of obstacles to treatment of late life depression.Based on their thesis consists of two studies to evaluate the effectiveness of a structured approach by primary care and community services to the identification and management of depression among older people. Phase One was a validation study of the short Geriatric Depression Scale as part of an annual over-75 health check by the practice nurse. Based on actual results the community services has increase among the age. Newborn, J. (2000). Dieters' experience of craving thoughts: The role of appraisal and thought control in dysfunctional eating behavior and emotional distress. (Order No. 13135627, University of Leister (United Kingdom)).PACT – I-J & Ireland, Retrieved from http://search. Protest. Com/deceive/301 545231 ? Accounted=35796. (301 545231). According to the Univac of Leister studies have shown that food cravings are a common place experience in the general population and ordinarily, are not associated with emotional distress or a lack of behavioral control. As a matter of fact some people with disordered eating, food cravings can be associated with significant distress and are implicated as a contributory factor in binge eating. So based on their recent advances in cognitive theory, I disagree since every person who crave food is eased on their state on mind.It really depends on every situation based on their needs. Reborn, L. C. (2002). Gender differences in body image dissatisfaction, eating disturbance and perception of media imagery in pre-adolescent children. (Order No. 13163247, University of Leister (United Kingdom)). PACT – I-J & Ireland, Retrieved from http://search. Protest. Com/deceive/301 554753? Accounted=35796. (301 554753). This study was to examine gender differences in body image dissatisfaction, disordered eating and drive for muscularity in pre-adolescent children based on the Edie facts.One hundred and ninety one children aged between nine and ten years participated in the study, and more than a half were or feel unhappy with their bodies. However, their expression of body image dissatisfaction differed, in that most girls wished for a thinner body shape, whereas the boys were equally split between those who wished to be thinner and those who wished to be larger. There were no gender differences in levels of eating disturbance. Researchers were inspired and extent their research based on the answers and numbers of this study.

National Jazz Hall

QSO-640 Midterm Robert Wilson Question 1 The project that Mr. Rutland is trying to manage is establishing maintaining a National Jazz Hall of Fame(NJHF) in Charlottesville, VA. The NHJF was created and has been in existence for about one year. Now, Mr. Rutland has found that the Paramount Theatre in downtown Charlottesville, which shares it’s name with a famous jazz hall from the 1930s and 40s in New York City, is about to be demolished and would like to save and renovate the building as the headquarters for the NJHF.The Paramount Theatre would be where the NJHF would be located and provide a venue for a museum, archives and a concert center. This would also allow the NJHF to sponsor jazz festivals, workshops and scholarships. The museum would be used to remember great jazz artists, serve jazz enthusiasts along with education he public on the importance of jazz in American culture and history. Question 2 The stakeholders in this project begin with Mr. Rutland himself.After tha t, some of the other stakeholders include the board of directors for the NHJF, the City of Charlottesville departments renovating the historic district of downtown Charlottesville, the consultant hired by the board, other tourist attractions in around Charlottesville and in Western Virginia, they include Monticello, James Monroe’s house, and the University of Virginia. Other stakeholders would be the contractors employed to renovate the Paramount, possible donors to the project, they could be private as well as governmental such as the National Endowment for the Arts, and the National Endowment for the Humanities.The potential jazz performers that are potential members of the NJHF are also very important stakeholders. If this is not a highly recognized and reputable hall of fame, some of these iconic jazz musicians will not want to be members of the organization. Finally, jazz fans as a whole are key stakeholders as well. Without them, there would not be a need for this type of attraction. Question 3 There are three major issues facing Mr. Rutland and the NJHF. They are: 1. Fund raising, 2. Building and leading a professional team to complete the project. 3. Marketing in order to promote the NJHF and gain national recognition.In order to successfully address these issues the following skills will be needed: Good communication skills – Since the PM will be dealing with many different type of people, groups and audiences, they will need to be able to communicate effectively on all of these different levels. They need to communicate with government entities in order to secure the necessary permits and inspections once the theatre is set to be renovated. They will have to speak with philanthropic groups in order to raise private funds for the renovation of the theatre along with donations to run the NJHF.In order to gain public funding, the PM will have to address government agencies such as the National Endowment for the Arts. For issue two, the PM will be the team leader and have to communicate well with each group of the project team. They will have to work with the different teams to create the renovation plan. Once that is done, they will have to work with many different contractors to secure bids before deciding on who will complete the renovations. Other groups that the PM will have to communicate would include the finance team, the procurement team and the budget team.As for issue number 3, the PM will have to work with several marketing firms who specialize in the work needed for the NJHF to establish national recognition. They will have to meet with many different firms in order to select the best one for the NJHF. Once that group is selected, the PM will be the interface to that group for the project. Communications with this group will of course be vital to the longevity of the NJHF. Ability to command respect – The PM needs to be to command respect from every group involved in each aspect of the project.With out respect, none of the groups will be â€Å"encouraged† to complete their assigned tasks. Also, without respect the project as a whole will not have any credibility. It is this respect and credibility that will help generate private and government funding. Also, if there is no respect in the project, the NJHF will not gain any respect in the Jazz community. Without that, why would any of the potentials jazz musicians want to be a member of this hall of fame? Conflict Resolution skills – this is a basic skill that every PM must have. Without it, no project would move forward.In this project, the conflicts could be many for all three issues. If the PM cannot resolve the conflicts that will arise from the renovation of the theatre alone, the other two issue will never come to fruition. Good knowledge of project management principles – Of all of the PM principles, risk management is key in this project. If you look at issue two, fundraising, what happens to the pr oject if a major source of funding becomes compromised? One real world example is the Boy Scouts of America. They received almost 40% of their annual budget from a donation by the American United Way.A few years ago, the United Way reduced their donation significantly. The BSA now receives only one percent of its budget from that organization. It was real blow to their ability to maintain their year round projects. In order to recoup this budgetary loss, they established the Friends of Scouting project. They now solicit donations from the parents of Scouts, former Scouts and other companies and non-profit organizations to fulfill the gap. The PM for this project will have to have contingency plans in place like the BSA has done.Be comfortable in an uncertain environment – This is a huge, multifaceted project that a PM can understand every aspect. The PM for this project needs to be able to manage well the pieces they know very well and have the ability to manage the pieces th ey are not so familiar with. They need to put the right people in place for the aspects of the project they are the least familiar. Say the PM is strong in construction but weak in fund raising, they need to find a good fund raiser and someone who is good with marketing. Question 4 I feel that Mr. Rutland does have credibility.He is a professor of History at the University of Virginia. I don’t think that he would have been able to have had jazz greats, Benny Goodman and Chick Corea join the NJHF National Advisory board if they didn’t feel that Mr. Rutland and the board of directors he established were credible. Having two famous jazz musicians like that on the board definitely adds credence and credibility to Mr. Rutland’s plan. Is Mr. Rutland a leader? A leader is defined as â€Å"interpersonal influence, exercised in situations and directed through the communication process, toward the arraignment of a specified goal of goals. † Mr.Rutland has shown tha t ability in the first year of building the NJHF. Mr. Rutland came up with the NJHF and locating it in Charlottesville, VA. He enlisted the help of his fellow jazz enthusiast, and created the board of directors for the hall of fame. After that he found a possible building location that, by name, has ties to the famous jazz era of the 1930s and 19402 in New York City. This would give the NJHF a headquarters with a credible and recognizable name. After establishing the board, Mr. Rutland went out to generate funds for the hall by applying for grants from philanthropic groups along with various government agencies.They were denied for two reasons, inexperience of the board members and the brevity of their existence. This could not be construed negatively toward the board or affect their credibility. Mr. Rutland also understood that the NJHF would need visitors to help generate revenue to continue the hall’s existence. He found that over half a million people visit the Charlottes ville area to see many other attractions. He knew he had to work with the various venues and tourist organization to help promote the NJHF as a viable attraction. Finally Mr.Rutland showed his leadership in hiring a consultant to help answer two questions. One, what is the interest level of the respondents for jazz and the establishment of a National Jazz Hall of Fame. The survey was conducted on a national level and on a local level. This allows Mr. Rutland to find out if people were actually interested in a Jazz Hall of Fame and if they would attend, jazz music as a whole, if people would be willing to donate money to such an organization, what services and events they would expect from the hall and what the average person interested in such a place would be willing to pay for admission.This gave the board an idea of what kind of funding they could expect fromt eh public through donations and admission fees. Question 5 The cultures relevant to this project are the African-American , Cajun, Africans, and American. Jazz was influenced by different cultures and sub-cultures. The music also has roots in the development of other music movements around the world. In the US, Jazz has influenced, the Blues, R&B, Motown, Dixieland, Classical and Country music. Jazz is a melting pot of music as well having its roots in other genres.The project environment for the National Jazz Hall of Fame was a struggle to get off the ground, but was met with great enthusiasm. After the first year, even though they had many setbacks due to difficulties raising contributions from outside sources and finding out they needed at least $600,000 to renovate the theatre, Mr. Rutland and the board felt the project showed promise. Mr. Rutland did not seem to give up, but found other ways to promote and endow the NJHF. He tried to utilized the local tourism outlets, the NJHF promoted concerts to raise money and awareness.Mr. Rutland visited other halls of fame to gain ideas and insights into th eir success. He also commissioned a two surveys to gather information about the viability and interest the public would have for a jazz hall of fame. Question 6 Mr. Rutland should do the following: Budget- Philanthropic organizations – Since they had difficulties raising funds from these types of organizations due to a lack of experience on the part of the board, they need to hire an executive director with fund raising experience.This will give them someone with the proper background that these organization are looking for and a higher level of credibility. This will help solidify them as a true purveyor of a hall of fame for Jazz. Government Agencies – Once they have a qualified executive director and have been established for over two years, they should reapply for government funds from groups like the National Endowment for the Arts. They will be able to get enough funds so that they may even begin to renovate the theatre. Donations – The survey showed that they could receive an average of $23. 0 per donation. They should pursue a low cost way of garnering these donations in order to increase their bottom line. The survey targeted individuals over 35 years old with an income of $50,000+. Perhaps they can target other age and income range along with woman. Memberships – These are an excellent way to raise money. You can usually provide a few low cost incentives to individuals and they will pay a little more of an admission fee to benefit from those perks. However, at this time, without an actually facility for the hall of fame, memberships may be something they should wait on.It was recommended that they pursue Founding Memberships. This would be a more viable option until it is decided on where the actual NJHF will be located. Everyone likes to say that they were the first ones to be involved in a new endeavor. Visitors – The survey found that the average admission fee could be $3. 50. This is a good price considering how many tourists visit the Charlottesville area. Again, until a facility if build and functional, this idea should be set aside. Budget – Expenditures. The Paramount Theatre is the NJHF’s largest expenditure at $600,000.Other expenditures are the cost of the surveys. Future costs will be setting up the Founding Membership accounts, the regular memberships (if any), the salary of the executive director and all of the operational costs of an office for that individual. There will also have to be a budget for correspondence, fliers for concerts and workshops, etc. A Travel budget for the executive director will be required as well. Performance: service/activities The NJHF will have to continue to sponsor concerts and workshops.This will help them promote their mission along with getting their name out there. Offering a scholarship will help as well. This would also help gain credibility with the National Association of Jazz Educators. Competition – The NJHF needs to work with their competition. This will allow them to learn about how they are doing things. What works and what does not. It could also give them an opportunity to create an association with other hall of fames. This would make them appear more established. They could use their competitions success to their advantage.Schedule – First thing would be to hire an experience executive director. I think the NJHF’s first window of opportunity will come when they have been around for over two years so they qualify for government funding. Their first milestone could be signing up their first Founding Member. This would give them a good jumping off point to establish a large group of Members. http://businessmanstar. blogspot. com/2012/01/national-jazz-hall-of-fame-njhf-case. html http://www. expertprogrammanagement. com/2009/06/required-skills-to-be-a-program-manager/

On the Inheritance of Acquired Traits and the Theory of Use and Disuse. Essay Example

On the Inheritance of Acquired Traits and the Theory of Use and Disuse. Essay Example On the Inheritance of Acquired Traits and the Theory of Use and Disuse. Paper On the Inheritance of Acquired Traits and the Theory of Use and Disuse. Paper On the Inheritance of Acquired Traits and the Theory of Use and Disuse. Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species described in great detail a means to explain the theory of evolution through natural selection. Within his work he makes many observations in relation to the heritability of acquired characteristics. As he describes the effects of artificial selection, he dawns on the topic of â€Å"The effects of habit and of the use or disuse of parts; correlated variation; inheritance†(Darwin, p10). Darwin makes the observation, when speaking of domesticated mammals, that â€Å"not one of our domesticated animals can be named which has not in some country drooping ears the drooping is due to the disuse of muscles of the ear, from the animals being seldom much alarmed†(Darwin, p10). Darwin argues that the increased use or disuse of parts in an animals lifetime result in heritable variation that can be passed on to their offspring. This variation he argues, is the basis for which animals develop advantageous traits and lose deleterious ones. Darwin bases his theory of heritable variation on the theory of acquired heritability, and the use and disuse principle, which was proposed by Lamarck. Being the predominant idea at the time the theory of Use and disuse states that, â€Å"use would cause the structure to increase in size over several generations, whereas disuse would cause it to shrink or even disappear†(Waggoner 1996). His second principle, or the idea of acquired heritability states that, â€Å"all such changes were heritable†(Waggoner 1996). Using these principles Darwin attempted to describe the relationships between organisms, the variation that resulted in speciation, and the evolutionary implications of those postulates. Lamarck’s theories provided a mechanism by which Darwin could explain natural selection and evolution, and in this respect they were invaluable. These theories however, are now known to be incorrect. The first principle of use and disuse can be dis-proven by the modern evolutionary principle that natural selection can act only on variability already present within a population. Genetic variation is already present in natural populations and selection acting on this variation results in evolution. The second principle of acquired heritability can be disproved under this same idea. Any particular advantageous trait(s) that an organism may develop during their lifetime, is a result of a genetic basis for that trait already present in the population or that may have arisen through mutation. The fitness increase caused by such a trait would result in the fixation of that trait in a population, so it would seem that an advantageous trait was inherited as a result of the parent organism developing that trait through use or disuse. Without a genetic background to explain heritability Lamarck’s theories made the most sense at the time. Since Darwin’s elaboration on the theory of evolution and heritability, numerous genetic experiments have taken place to attempt to provide a better understanding of the laws of heritability. Darwin makes several assertions within the first chapter of On the Origin of Species that defend his ideas to this day. His idea of correlated variation, or the idea that certain traits are associated with each other is explained by the statement that, â€Å"if man goes on selecting, and thus augmenting any peculiarity, he will almost certainly modify unintentionally other parts of the structure, owing to the mysterious laws of correlation†(Darwin, p11). What Darwin was referring to, although he didn’t know it, was idea of genetic linkage, or that certain traits are associated with others through genetic linkage on a genome. Darwin used the domestication of the canine as an example of artificial selection to aid in his explanation of heritable variation. He focuses on the idea that while the domestic dog is one species, a significant degree of variation can be seen within that species that has been acquired over time. The large degree of variation seen in domestic dogs can be explained by a domestication experiment conducted on foxes. Through genetic mapping scientist have been able to â€Å"identify a locus that is orthologous to, and therefore validates, a genomic region recently implicated in the domestication of dogs†(Kukekova et al. 2011). This locus is significant because selection for a behavioral trait can cause the selection of several phenotypic changes associated with that trait. Because of the prescience of a discrete locus for tame vs. aggressive behavior the canine and other related species were predisposed for domestication by humans. The subsequent phenotypic variation that followe d with the domestication of dogs was due to the prescience of alleles associated with the locus for tame behavior. Domestication presents the unique result that, â€Å"when subjected to domestication, animals whose evolutionary pathways did not cross, started to evolve in the same direction†(Kukekova et al. , 2011). The species of mammals that have been domesticated, show similar morphological changes associated with tame behavioral patterns(see figure 2). Darwin suggested that certain features shared by domestic animals are a result of their domestication, when in actuality it is the reverse effect. Certain features shared by domestic animals are the result of their ancestral varieties being predisposed to domestication because of variation already present in their natural populations. The commonalities shared among domesticates of multiple species rules out the idea that these animals acquired those traits due to environmental factors. Environmental factors are so variable, that it would be impossible if not highly improbable that the majority of domesticated mammals would develop such similar characteristics. In addition, â€Å"it seems unlikely that these similar trends of morphological and physiological transformation of different domestic animals depend on homology-independent mutations of structural homologous genes†(Trut et al. , 2009). The association between a docile nature, and distinct morphological changes seen across multiple species suggests that these animals share a similar genetic structure and share a common ancestor. A shared, relatively recent common ancestor would explain why highly divergent species under selection for a particular trait would evolve similar characteristics. Another observation that Darwin poses as evidence for acquired heritability, and one of the most well know is that of the giraffe and its long neck. Darwin presents that, â€Å"the giraffe, by its lofty stature, much elongated neck, forelegs, head and tongue, has its whole frame beautifully adapted for browsing on the higher branches of trees. It can thus obtain food beyond the reach of the other Ungulata or hoofed animals inhabiting the same country; and this must be a great advantage to it during dearths†(Darwin, p104). Darwin goes on to suggest that over time as giraffes stretched their necks farther, those that could reach the highest branches and used their long necks to the greatest advantage would pass those traits on to their offspring. Studies have shown however, that this observation is flawed because of multiple disadvantages that giraffes suffer as a result of their long necks, and behavioral tendencies of the species that suggest it provides no particular advantage during dearths. The first flaw with Darwin’s observations of the giraffe stem from the fact that if giraffes possessed a truly significant advantage over other ungulata, then why aven’t more long necked species evolved? In addition, why haven’t shorter species of ungulata suffered greatly or gone extinct in prolonged periods of dearth? Evidence suggests that, â€Å"animals frequently feed at shoulder level during winter bottlenecks, when their neck should assist them in gaining a feeding height advantageâ € (Simmons and Altwegg, 2009). Feeding at lower heights rules out the idea that the giraffe’s long neck provides a significant advantage over other species during dearth. Many studies have suggested that the long necks have evolved through sexual selection, as males use their necks in mating displays, as well as for male-male competition for females. The males with larger necks tend to be preferred by oestrous females and more commonly win contests for access to females(Simmons and Altwegg, 2009). If one looks at physiology of a giraffe there are many disadvantages to their elongated neck and bone structure. As the neck grows longer more energy is required to pump blood to the brain and there is a greater probability that an organism will sustain injury due to elongated limbs(Mitchell and Skinner, 2003). When giraffes drink water they must spread their forelimbs in an awkward position that takes time and increases their vulnerability to predators. A disadvantage such as their inability to reach the ground from standing position suggests that giraffes most likely evolved their long necks from sexual selection pressure, which can select for traits that could potentially decrease lifespan in return for increased reproductive success. The disadvantages to the giraffes long neck coupled with its relatively limited advantages rule out the possibility that they gained this trait through acquired heritability, or even natural selection. While Darwin was mistaken about the mechanism by which organisms acquired advantageous traits, he made many accurate observations and was able to make many accurate predictions from those observations that still hold true today. Regardless of his lack of knowledge of the laws of heritability, Darwin was able to describe correlated variation in great detail, and elaborate on its importance to the heritability of traits. Darwin provided a logical analysis of his observations and provided a solid basis for which other scientists could test and elaborate on his theories. Lastly, Darwin’s observations were accurate and logical however, because he lacked a mechanism for which to describe how traits were inherited, he based his assumptions on the theories of acquired heritability and use/disuse, which we know now to be incorrect. (from Trut. et al. 2009) References: 1. Darwin, Charles. (1859). On the Origin of Species. London: John Murray. 2. Waggoner, B. (1996). Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829). UCMP Berkeley. ucmp. berkeley. edu/history/lamarck. html 3. Kukokeva, A. V. et al. (2011). Mapping Loci for Fox Domestication: Deconstruction/Reconstruction of a Behavioral Phenotype. Behav Genet, 41: 593-606. 4. Trut, L. et al. (2009). Animal Evolution During Domestication: the domesticated fox as a model. BioEssays, 31: 349-360. 5. Simmons, R. E. , Altwegg, R. (2009). Necks-for-sex or Competing Browsers? A Critique of Ideas on the Evolution of the Giraffe. Journal of Zoology, 282: 6-12. 6. Mitchell, G. , Skinner, J. D. (2003). On the Origin, Evolution and Phylogeny of Giraffes Giraffa camelopardalis. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa, 58(1): 51-73.

Research Paper on Health

Research Paper on Health Multi professional / disciplinary working is essential in public health, since it draws on theatrical perspectives from a wide range of fields (Naidoo Wills 2001). It is the intention of this essay to demonstrate the importance of this, by evaluating some opposing disciplines that contribute to the field. I would like to explore the diversities of perspectives such as Epidemiology, Social Sciences and the contribution of the public/lay perspectives, to illustrate how ideas from different disciplines contribute to an understanding of public health. By evaluating some of the opposing approaches to public health and highlighting how these diverse disciplines often come from different academic and organisational cultures, it should demonstrate what different perspectives offer to the public health debate and why is a necessity for then to work together. It also offers an analysis of the challenges to public health being a truly multi disciplinary profession. Epidemiology is defined as â€Å"the study of patterns of disease occurrence in human populations and the factors that influence these  patterns† (Lilienfeld Lilienfeld, 1980 as cited in moon, 2000 p1). However public health entails far more that bio-physiological factors and requires investigation of the social context and public/lay perspectives. Sociology examines the social dimensions of health, illness and health care and what accounts for the socio-economic inequalities in public health. It looks at how the social structures, institutions and processes affect health and what is the relation between the professional disciplines and the public (Daykin as cited in Naidoo 2001 p102). Social science is used in the same context as (Williams G Popay J 1997) referring to researchers/disciplines that look at the â€Å" influence of the economic and political context of Britain and other western countries mainly in the late 20 century over the heath of the populations†. Naidoo Wills (2001 p2) offer a reminder that the notion of multi professional working is not a new concept in the study of health. (WHO 1946 cited in Naidoo Wills 2001p2) was one of the first to look at health holistically describing it as a state of complete will being and although this may be considered utopia today, it still highlights the multi dimensional aspects of health and offers arguments as to why disciplines must work in a multi disciplinary way. The most recent government is pressing the idea that public health should be a multi disciplinary profession and wants to bring in more integrated and partnership working with these disciplines. It sees it as one of the ways forward to rid health of the internal market philosophies of the previous Government (Partnership in Action D of H 1998). (The New NHS: Modern and Dependable D of H.1997; Making a Difference: A Strategy for Nursing, Midwifery and Health Visiting D of H.1999; NHS Plan D of H. 2000) jointly pledge to introduce new ways of partnership working and among their concurrent objectives, to raise the profile of public health. Working across boundaries is seen as vital in working with the most vulnerable in society that previously have been missed (D of H 1997). It builds devices around the needs of those whose are most in need and avoids duplication (D of H 1998) and if professionals do not work together then will find themselves in no mans land. (D of H 1998). This docume nt is trying to give different agencies more power to work together by pooling budgets, having lead commissioners, integrating provision and incentives. It could be a challenge for public  health to be a truely multi-displinary profession when medicine has dominated in public health in the past. Modern epidemiological studies have however, contributed greatly and influenced public health work and policies, in trying to change individual’s lifestyles (D of H 1992). However, persistent limitations of this approach has led to the acknowledgement for the wider influences that effect public health, mainly that of health inequalities (D of H, 1999), (D of H, 2001a). These documents recognise that to achieve a comprehensive understanding of public health it is necessary to look beyond â€Å"malfunctioning of the physical body† and investigate, â€Å"societal and cultural factors along side†(Naidoo et al 2001) This essay argues that more credence must be given to social science research, if public health is to be effective. It is clear that if we are going to work effectively on public health then professions must not only work together in a multi disciplinary way but must also listen to what the public say about their own health needs (Williams G Popay J (1997). Recent documents such as the expert patient (D of H, 2001b) and â€Å"Shifting the balance of power† (D of H 200a) offer a basis for involving the public, however it remains a challenge about how to work in conjunction with everyone with our current, diverse and multi cultural society. More innovative research is needed, including both epidemiological and social perspectives. To understand the constraints of multi- professional working within public health, it is necessary to look at the history behind public health, especially the contributions of Epidemiology, which has focused on the causes of disease at population level and continues to be considered one of the most important sciences contributing to it. (Beaglehole Bonita, 1997). By the end of the Victorian era, public health had moved into two very distinct areas that were quite separate. The first was involved in the general improvements of social conditions and the second concentrated on the development of specific preventative and curative health services ( Baggott 2000) Epidemiology since the nineteenth century has had an enormous impact on public health with wide ranging achievements (susser susser, 1996) starting with improvements in drainage and sewerage, initiating statistical evidence, recognising and tackling environmental and social factors that have effected health. Work was also done o n eradicating infectious diseases though the development of vaccinations. Effects on public health by this discipline have not all been seen as beneficial and the insights gained previously into environmental factors and poverty were somewhat lost with this dominant but narrow biomedical approach (Baggett R 2000). Mc known 1976 even observed that health improvements have less to do with immunisations and more to do with improving socio economic factors. From a social perspective (Williams G pope, 1997) go further than this and claim that this medical led power may have led to people not focusing on social reform as much and that in fact in the recent decades as historically, the poor have continued to be blamed for illness and the disease. They feel that to much credence has been given to data collecting and the epidemiological model, so to stifle public health work. They also claim that the public and lay views are just as valid and that general feelings and perceptions are equally as important.Those from a medical health background to give less credence to socilogocal  perspectives especially the lay involvement in health matters(Heller T 2001) claims that to ensure that medicine continues to be the lead in many public health issues there needs to be more evicence base and it is the lack of this has caused problems in dilemmas around the medical perceptions of important health issues and those of the public i.e. MMR vaccination debate. This is particularly significant in today’s climate of clinical governance and evidence –based practise (D of H, 1997 and 1998) These ideologies have had a major impact on Epidemiology where there have been criticisms regarding the standards of research and data collection and yet in contrast ,there appears to be a complex confusion of views between the various disciplines with the government saying they want more evidence based practise from the scientific disciplines and equally a desire for the public to be listed to and involved . whilst Black (2001) claims there needs to be a more sustained drive to collect and use evidence as an underpinning of health policies at all levels and that despite the rhetoric and  criticism around their own discipline , health policy makers equally develop their policies largely in an evidence-free zone (Black 2001). Povey (1998) states very strongly that Lay people need to be much more involved in order to include the social and cultural context of public health This term â€Å"lay† refers to people who are not health care professionals or researchers but may have a specialist knowledge related to health including the general public and consumer advocates. (Entwistle et al 1998). This essay would also like to argue that the lay perspective should be included in any debate around multi- professional working, Even though they are not health professionals but are very much needed for the social and cultural context (povey 1998) It has also been claimed that duee to the way medicine it constructed, it contributes to contribute to a loss of individual autonomy for example medicine has encroached on normal things such as life and death (mckeown, 1976) and that public health research, especially that of Epidemiology ,has increasingly excluded from its ‘microscope attention’ the voices of the people (Williams et al 1997). Whilst Epidemiology has indeed done great things in the development of the fight against infection., the power that Epidemiology was then consequently afforded in public health meant that they focused on these areas somewhat to the exclusion of the political need to look at social inequalities and injustices. Historically all disciplines come from differing perspectives with different concepts models highlighting why it must be necessarily multi disciplinary but it is relatively recently that people have really started to link the different perspectives to health (stansfield 1999 c ited in Naidoo 2001) and therefore highlighting the need for them to collaborate and make connections when working together for the improvement of the public’s health. It would appear that reflecting on this review of public Health history, that Epidemiology has had significant successes and the knowledge and influence that it has gained have influenced many public health policies and campaigns such as â€Å"Health of the Nation†, (D of H, 1992). But despite the measures by Epidemiology to demonstrate strong associations of risk factors Emslie et al (2001 a p25) suggest that the current â€Å"evidence on the effectiveness of health advice to modify behavioural risk factors, is discouraging† and propose that an â€Å"urgent need to understand the public perceptions of the causes and consequences is needed†. (Parsons 1951) first developed the concept that ill health should be viewed in relation to the society as a whole and not just as the individual, which very much forms the basis of public health work today . This backs up all the recent social science research of health being strongly patterned by social factors. People do no t have equal chance of enjoying health or living to old age and deprived groups experience poorer health, higher levels of mortality and there are differences in class gender sexuality and ethnicity. When looking at why these inequalities persist it offers a view of how the medical perspective of health can be at odds with  sociological and public  perception (Naidoo page social science) (Williams G et al1997) recorded some interesting research done in Salford, which has some of the poorest population in Great Britain within the ward. This research claimed that the public were able to present a sophisticated understanding of the network of factors which may structure perceptions of ill health and related risks i.e smoking through despair is an obvious well researched example (Graham, 1987 and 1993)This research indicated that the traditional health education messages alone do not work .people in these poorest wards well know the health related risks that they faced i.e. the effects of smoking, drinking, drugs poor diet and exercise etc but most of the respondents cited structural and socio- economic factors as the most powerful influences on their health such as living in high rise flats and the stresses of bringing up young children in this environment that caused depression and isolation . Unemployment, poverty, economic decline and fear of crime were all put down as the most signifant cause of their poor health.  Heat education alone may have increased knowledge, but have failed to address the real issues of public health and have possibly caused an era of victim blaming. Epidemiology has been criticised for its methodological individualism (Diex- Roux, 1998 p 216) and as with (William g povey), (Schwartz Carpenter 1999) and (Pearce, 1996) they all criticise modern Epidemiology for its disregard of wider socio-cultural, temporal issues. It is suggested that contextual or multilevel analyses to investigate individual and multi-level variables would bring context back to Epidemiology Diex-Rusx 1992 p216) It is clear therefore that â€Å"public health has to be multi disciplinary because social factors such as income, housing, and employment have been shown to have greatest impact on health status than health care† (Modernising Health and Social Services 1998) Multi disciplinary working is recognised in health improvement guidance (D of H, 1997) where the shared responsibility for health between local authorities, NHS and their partners is highlighted. There have bewen many changes in public health, in recent years and we are now more likely to hear that the pattern of health inequality is about where you live and whether you are rich or poor, rather that you own lifestyle decisions. (Mitchell R et al 2000). This report on the Inequalities in Life and Death claims that all health changes can be manipulated though radical social policy changes. The new approaches to Epidemiology also sound promising with a suggestion of a new era of eco-Epidemiology addressing health at population, societal and individual levels. However without a multi disciplinary approach to epidemiological research, it will fail to investigate context and will continue to provide invalid conclusions and recommendations for public health. Diez- roux (1998) acknowledges that defining and measuring contextual variables is problematic and Epidemiology must create methods of research that incorporate both qualitative and quantitative approaches. This can only happen with collaboration with different disciplines. Especially social and cultural methodologies. Much of the work done around involving the public derives from a sociological perspective and this has also helped to produce useful models for health promotion. Public health disciplines must continue to adopt socially aware and multi disciplinary approaches. They must continue to liase with and involve the public who are empowering themselves often by gathering information over the internet (Hardy 1999). If health promotion is to be truly multi disciplinary then disciplines shoulimitations when standing alone which leads to the need for them not to stand alone but be a part of the debate Naidoo page2 the value of people working in a multi disciplinary way is that by drawing on many different expertise, a fuller account of public health can begin to challenge existing boundaries of knowledge that lead to only a partial understanding of health. In this assignment, I hope to have also argued that whilst inter professional working is vital in public health and indeed there are barriers too it. It is also equally as important to ensure that the public or consumers of the professionals have a greater say in the quality and nature of the provision. . There will always be intellectual tensions between disciplines but this should provide the basis for invigorating debate rather than mutual hostility (Williams 1997) Naidoo By working in a multi. Public Health is far too complex to be interpret ed in a single discipline.